Roman Piety and The Aeneid

By Pierce K. Kozlowski

Marble Statue of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BCE)

Introduction

The poetical epics of Rome, such as the Aeneid and the character of Aeneas, capture the true expression of Roman virtue. But what was that Roman virtue, exactly? The answer is simple: Pietas. Virgil’s Aeneid—an epic poem published in 19 BCE and commissioned by Augustus to reinstill traditional Roman values—is a story about the father of the Roman race who must undertake a journey across the Mediterranean to fulfill the divine prophecy of finding and establishing Lavinium. He must also learn to both master and embody the quality of pietas, which he is successful in doing. Consequently then, Aeneas’ chief title to glory is his pietas (Hankins).

To understand why this is the case, two things must be understood: first, that Roman pietas is a devotion to the gods, to country, to family, and to friends; and second, that Aeneas both symbolizes and personifies what pietas champions, with the first six books of the Aeneid showing Aeneas’ struggle with pietas and the latter six books showing Aeneas perfect his pietas. Lastly, Roman philosophers like Cicero who lived prior to the Aeneid function as the true authority in defining what piety is, and it can be reasonably argued that such a value could not have been more eloquently or beautifully expressed than in the character of Aeneas. So, whereas Cicero taught what piety was through expository writing, Virgil showed his audience the application of that piety through storytelling.

Rome's Greatest Value

To understand the piety of Aeneas’ character, the question must be asked: What is piety? In essence, piety is a devotion to the gods, to country, and to family. First, by willingly submitting to the gods, a person shows their righteous nature and their zealous love to the higher powers; second, by putting the country first, a person shows their dutiful love to their parents and ancestors so that the generations that proceed from them may prosper; and finally, by putting their family before themself, they fulfill their duty as a husband and a father—they must be a steward over their home, a protector to their wife, a role model to their children.

Nowhere is this idea made plainer in Roman thought than in Cicero’s De Inventione: "They call religion, that which is conversant with the fear of, and ceremonious observance paid to the gods; they call that piety, which warns us to fulfill our duties towards our country, our parents, or others connected with us by ties of blood" (Cicero). Pietas, according to Cicero, came down to faith, country, and family in its earliest iteration. Cicero (106-43 BCE)—who was a fervous orator, the youngest Roman consul, and arguably the greatest mind in Roman thought—wrote this between 91-88 BCE, when he would have been about only twenty years old. Even in his younger days, Cicero’s wise understanding of piety would not only remain consistent and become more comprehensive in his later writings, but it would be stamped as a central value in the culture of the Republic. To convey the significance of Cicero’s early definition of piety, however, academics like Piotr Berdowski have dedicated time to the matter and boiled down Cicero’s notions of piety into three Latin phrases: “pietas erga deos” or ‘piety to the gods’; “pietas erga patriam” or ‘piety to the country’; “pietas erga partens” or ‘piety to parents’ (“pietas erga amicos” or ‘piety towards friends’ is also included too, as Cicero wrote extensively about the importance of virtuous friendship and is even noted by modern historians like Gertrude Emilie for his adherence to it in his own life). To reiterate, the early thinking surrounding piety began with a simple idea: the purpose of every individual was to be dutiful to the gods, their country, their parents, and by extension, their friends too (Berdowski).

With regard to the gods, reverence and love towards them in pious worship and virtuous conduct were of the utmost importance to the Romans. This is why the value pietas erga deos or piety towards the gods was Cicero’s first principle in outlining what constituted piety. Moreover, not only would humility be an important characteristic to adopt when reverencing the gods, but Cicero also believed that it was this religious and faithful attitude that distinguished Rome from its neighbors. Biondo Flavio (1392-1463 CE)—an Italian intellectual during the Renaissance era—quotes Cicero orating this exact sentiment in his book, Rome in Triumph. To the senate, Cicero averred:

"However well we think of ourselves, senators, we have not yet surpassed Spain in numbers, nor Gaul in vigor, nor Carthage in cleverness, nor Greece in the arts, nor indeed Italy itself and Latium in the innate moral sense characteristic of this land and it's people. Where we have surpassed all other nations and peoples is in piety and religious devotion and in this unique piece of wisdom: for we have discerned that the universe is guided and ruled by the sway of the immortal gods" (Cicero).

Even though Rome’s supposed “superiority” could be reasonably debated, Cicero understood that what made Rome special was that they believed in the higher counsels of divinity, that they were able to discern and reconcile those higher forces using their reason, and that they showed devotion to those greater beings, whom humanity was made in the image of. (This language bears similarities to the Judeo-Christian notion of humans being made in the image of God from the book of Genesis, but the ancient Hebrew myth of creationism is not to be confused with the Greco-Roman one.)

For Cicero, theological questions relating to divinity were not to be taken lightly, and such investigations were even practical and reasonable. There was never a question as to whether there were higher powers, but rather it was asked as to whether those higher powers were active forces of nature and involved in human events. Academic John Wynne—a professor of world language and culture at the University of Utah—makes this exact observation in his book, Cicero on the Philosophy of Religion: “Cicero says that almost no philosophers held atheism or agnosticism. For [Cicero] the Central Question of philosophy of religion is not the existence of the gods, but whether the gods care for us by providence” (Wynne). This idea that Cicero concerned himself with the nature of the gods and presupposed their existence is reinforced by the fact that he penned a substantial dialogue called De Natura Deorum, or The Nature of the Gods. In a work of equal quality, however, Cicero posited that while it was good to acknowledge the gods, it was necessary that homage and respect be shown to them also. This is why, in De Officiis, Cicero declared that “piety and holiness of life will propitiate the gods” (Cicero). To have favor with the divine meant that piousness and love towards the divine were required. Importantly, this quality of piousness constituted the sacred doctrine of piety. Therefore, if upholding good character to gain favor with the gods was righteous, then such an endeavor was also an act of piety. Hence the Roman value of pietas erga deos.

Despite the further exploration that could be done with religion, piety itself did not end with revelation alone. The other areas of focus are dutiful dedication to both country and family, or pietas erga patriam and pietas erga parentes. Among Cicero’s prolific volumes, an exorbitant amount of his efforts went towards discussing the former: piety towards country. Undoubtedly, Cicero recognized the splendor of the divine, but what allegiance would he or his countrymen pledge themselves to after the authority of the gods? Cicero was clear in his answer: the Republic. It is worth noting that this dedication to the Republic superseded any allegiance to parties, leaders, or politicians—even holding the view that defending the Republic only ceased with his life. In De Legibus, it reads: “That fatherland must stand first in our affection in which the name of republic signifies the common citizenship of all of us,” Cicero wrote. “For her it is our duty to die, to give her ourselves, to place on her altar, and, as it were, to dedicate to her service, all that we possess” (Cicero). He expressed this exact same sentiment again in another letter to Manius Curius, confessing that “at that time I was mourning the loss of the republic, which, owning to her services to me as well as mine to her, was dearer to me then life itself” (Cicero). This was significant because Cicero made himself the embodiment of patriotic duty to the governing system, as nothing was more dear to him or the Roman citizenry than the sophisticated articles of proper justice and Roman republicanism.

Cicero did not hold this view arbitrarily, either, as he believed that such an affection to the state was of benefit to the individual. In a letter to Plancus, Cicero asserts that “there is nothing that can bring you greater material advantage or greater glory, as there is nothing in all human affairs more brilliant or more excellent than to deserve well of the republic” (Cicero). With regard to piety, love for the state was virtuous. The republic, as it were, was designed to uphold justice; it was a testament to the achievement of human intelligence and order, and a citizen's love that aimed at preserving the country was designed to be of great benefit to that very citizen. Naturally then, if this attitude was designed to preserve a country that is good, then the attitude and endeavor itself must also be good. As a consequence, devotion to the state and country is in and of itself a demonstration of piety. Hence why pietas erga patriam is a tree constituting the broader forest of Roman piety.

The third and final value Cicero championed and Roman society abided by was pietas erga parentes. In this case, this value demands devotion to parents, family, and loosely speaking, close friends as well. Cicero understood the importance of this particular value, as he truly lived by it consistently and applied it to his own life. An academic who understands this is Gertrude Emilie, who elaborates on the piety Cicero showed toward his family:

"Cicero’s private life is one of devotion to his family. In proof of this we need only to recall his devotion to his daughter, the careful instruction of his son and of his nephew, and his reaction to his brother’s treachery. He always looked back with distress at the divorce proceedings of 47 B.C. . . . [Cicero] begs Atticus to give Terentia [Cicero’s wife] the advantage in any difficulty. . . . " (Emilie).

The “divorce proceeding” that Emilie referred to was the divorce between Cicero and his wife. However, Emilie also mentioned that Cicero implored this “Atticus” character to give his wife help in any hardship she faced. This quotation is referring to a letter correspondence Cicero had with a long-time, childhood friend named Atticus, in which Cicero movingly asked his friend to watch over his family when he was not there, particularly his wife and son. Cicero clearly placed the welfare of his family first in this instance, demonstrating the importance of this particular virtue, which bears direct reference to Roman piety.

In another instance, Cicero’s brother Metellus acted against Cicero by being involved with Albanian forces who attacked Pompey (one of the two rulers in the first triumvirate who Cicero supported). Cicero forgivingly wrote this in response to his brother: “Not only do I excuse your resentment but I even pay it the tribute of my highest commendation; for my own feeling prevents my forgetting the power of brotherly love” (Cicero). Not only had Cicero written extensively about the value of family and friendship, but his living by example, which is made most apparent by his many letters on the matter, makes his teachings all the more significant and impactful. The broader takeaway from this, however, is that it’s good to be dutiful and virtuous in relationships. It is as wise as it is beneficial for a man to put his family and those he holds most dear first, and to forgive them even when they’ve unjustly wronged him. Hence why the value pietas erga parentes completes the holy trinity of Roman piety.

For this reason, because such things are righteous in the eyes of the gods, because such things are beneficial for the continuation of the republic, and because such things are virtuous for the family structure, these three values, therefore, are an act of true piety in every sense.

"Aeneas defeats Turnus," painted by Luca Giordano (1634–1705)

Aeneas: The Personification of Piety

It would be remiss to not acknowledge the impact Cicero’s writings had on the culture of Rome decades after he espoused them. However, despite pietas thinking reaching its apex in the philosophy of Cicero, it was Virgil who undertook the daunting task of popularising it in the Homeric style of storytelling—with Emperor Augustus being the force behind the project itself (Grebe). Publius Vergilius Maro, or Virgil (70-19 BCE)—the famous Roman poet and author of the Aeneid—intended to reflect the best of Roman thought and Roman values in the Aeneid, supported by the fact that Augustus commissioned the piece as part of a broader effort to usher in a “Golden Age” for the province of Rome. Therefore, it is no surprise that pietas was a staple of Aeneas’ character and a thematic throughline of the Aeneid itself.

Over the course of the Aeneid, Virgil uses the adjective pius to describe Aeneas no less than fifteen times, has other characters refer to Aeneas as pius or pietate insignis eight times, and he also has Aeneas describe himself as pius two other times (Moseley). Of course, these epithets are not applied in vain, as Virgil crafted Aeneas to truly embody what Cicero described as pietas erga deos, patriam, et parentes. With regard to the pietas erga deos, Aeneas shines in his devout obedience to the divine. It is no doubt as to why of the fifteen times Virgil refers to Aeneas as pius, nine of those are in reference to Aeneas praying or carrying out the will of the gods (Moseley).

An example of Aeneas submitting to the heavens is towards the middle of Book IV: "But though he longs to soften, soothe her sorrow and turn aside her troubles with sweet words, though groaning long and shaken in his mind because of his great love, nevertheless pious Aeneas carries out the gods’ instructions. Now he turns back to his fleet" (Virgil, IV 393). This is in the aftermath of Aeneas’ relationship with the mighty Dido, Queen of Carthage. After divine intervention had driven Dido to become inflamed with a passionate love for Aeneas, both Dido and Aeneas, though not married, had become one in romance. It was not wise for Aeneas to have gotten involved with Dido considering that he still had to carry out the will of the heavens. Thus, the father of all things, Jupiter, lovingly sent his messenger god, Mercury, to redirect Aeneas onto his pre-charted course. Aeneas, upon explaining to Dido his position, is met with understandable anger and upset from the Queen. Nothing Aeneas could say was capable of bringing her solace, but despite this emotional turmoil, Aeneas still directed his eyes toward the mighty counsel of Mount Olympus and his heart towards the instruction of munificent Jupiter. In this case, despite Aeneas’ love for Dido, not only were they not bound by marriage, but Aeneas had been hailed to fulfill a higher calling, which he morally carried out.

Another instance of Aeneas’ steadfast obedience is toward the end of Book V: “pious Aeneas tore the mantle from his shoulders; stretching out his hands, he called upon the gods for help” (Virgil, V 685). The prayer that follows immediately after this quotation captured Aeneas movingly submitting to the will of “all-able Jupiter,” beseeching Jupiter to spare his fleet from the violence of the great fires which charred the majority of their ships—a request that Jupiter grants to the Trojans. Aeneas’ pietas erga deos reveals a level of sincerity and refinement in his character. When Jupiter called, Aeneas went; when trouble encroached upon his journey, Aeneas faithfully turned toward Jupiter. Such piety was undoubtedly designed to be a perfect example of how the Romans were to conduct themselves before the vault of heaven. And though the involvement of the gods was not present historically (lest one was a Roman pagan and believed in them), Virgil’s scene spoke directly to the truth Cicero was trying to convey: That no one should compromise what is righteous or holy, and that one should fight to uphold those things in one’s own life, for as Cicero mentioned earlier, the gods delight in the “piety and holiness of life” (Cicero).

While Aeneas' faith in higher powers was significant due to its remarkable demonstration of piety, he does not fall short with pietas erga patriam et parentes either. When it came to his country, or his people, in this case, Aeneas was a valiant leader who acted to their benefit. In Book VI, Virgil writes: "And so they wander over all that region across the wide and misted plains, surveying everything. And when father Anchises has shown his son each scene and fired his soul with love of coming glory, than he tells Aeneas of wars he must still wage, of the Laurentians, of Latinus’ city, and how he is to flee or face each trial" (Virgil, VI 886-892). Many times during the Aeneid, the actions of Aeneas possess overlapping qualities of piety within them, and this quotation from Book VI serves as the perfect example. Aeneas not only heeded the words of his father with reverence and obediently set out to take part in the difficult fates his father showed him in the underworld, but Aeneas also lead his people into a more glorious future by carrying out his fated journey. In obeying Anchises on high matters, Aeneas does homage to his father—expressing perfect pietas erga parentes. In carrying out his fated tasks, however, Aeneas is acting as a valorous leader because by bringing about the future colossus of Rome’s establishment, Aeneas is acting in both the favor of his current people and his future country—phenomenally conveying the virtue of pietas erga patriam which Cicero so ardently cherished.

While Aeneas is a righteous practitioner of all qualities related to pietas by the epic’s conclusion, he notably displayed pietas erga amiscos as well. Cicero wrote extensively about this particular value and seemed to equate it with pietas erga parentes, so it's worth mentioning the behavior of Aeneas in Book 5 when he fervidly proclaimed: "Take these words to heart, and give pleasurable attention. None of your number will go away without a reward from me. I’ll give two Cretan arrows, shining with polished steel, for each man, to take away, and a double-headed axe chased with silver: all who are present will receive the same honour" (Virgil, V 304-308). After Aeneas’ strenuous separation from Dido in Book 4, Virgil crafted Book 5 to fit a lighter mood by giving the reader a moment to breathe. So, in Book 5, Aeneas decided to host a series of athletic competitions for his fleet to indulge in, but Aeneas counteracted the possibility of competitive pettiness by giving an equal bounty to every warrior who partook in the tournament. This explampifies the fundemental virtue of pietas erga patriam, but even more so, the pietas erga amiscos. Not only was this of benefit to Aeneas’ people—his fleet specifically—but this was to the benefit of his friends within the fleet, the men he shared the bond of brotherhood with.

Conclusion

While Aeneas acted outside the scope of proper piety a number of times in the story, many modern interpreters of the Aeneid have decided to take this to mean that Aeneas was unworthy of being called pius. However, such a conclusion is faulty, for what are those same interpreters to make of the gods, who many times throughout the Aeneid and in other ancient epics, did not act piously? Would it make sense to hold Aeneas to a standard of perfection that even the gods could not meet? Of course not. Aeneas had a divine nature by virtue of the fact that he was a demi-god, but that also meant Aeneas was human as well. Since this is true, his nature was infallible and his actions were prone to error as all humans would be. What makes Aeneas special, however, is that while he encountered difficult situations and made unwise decisions, he learned from and avoided those blunders when they presented themselves again later in the storyline. Hence why his character arc underwent such tremendous growth from Book 1 to Book 12 with regard to his pietas.

Moreover, Aeneas always had an internal compass that directed him toward the pious quality Virgil so carefully crafted. Even when Aeneas lost sight of the greater picture or was discouraged on his journey, he faithfully looked to the heavens for help; when Aeneas was given counsel from those nobler than himself—such as Jupiter’s messenger Mercury, or his father Anchises—he obediently accepted. Aeneas is an inherently righteous and honorable character, but Virgil choosing to contrast Aeneas’s early mistakes at the beginning against his mastery of piety towards the end makes for a much richer, more realistic narrative. This was logical for Virgil to do, because how else could he have crafted a perfect practitioner of pietas if that character was not personable and prone to folly before attaining mastery? How could the ancient Romans appreciate Virgil’s poetic world if that world had felt disconnected from reality? It is for this reason that, despite Aeneas’ shortcomings, his character is ultimately the truest expression of pietas as Cicero defined it, with no Roman poet conveying the application of that value more accurately or perfectly than Virgil.

Piety, in its most accurate form, is piety erga deos, patriam, parentes, et amiscos: devotion to the gods, commitment to the country, sacrifice for one’s own family, and virtuous regard for one’s own friends. The values constituting piety reached their apex in the writings of Cicero, while the expression and spreading of those ideas had been accomplished through the brilliance of Virgil. And because of the intellectual and creative savagery of those two giants, humanity was blessed with a wonderful story, offering the people of today a window into the world of the Eternal City, and the chance to continue the flame of Rome’s legacy by carrying the torch of her greatest ideals.

References

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