Stoicism and Epicureanism

By Pierce K. Kozlowski

The Stoic Philosophy

Zeno of Citium (336-262 BCE), a Hellenistic philosopher and teacher, was well educated in early Greek philosophy, and founded Stoicism in 300 BCE. Stoicism asserts that, through

moderation, living justly and virtuously is the highest good. Seneca (50-65 CE), a philosopher

and statesman, valued this imperative, and wrote, “Let virtue lead the way: then every step will be safe. Too much pleasure is hurtful: but with virtue we need fear no excess of any kind,

because moderation is contained in virtue itself...” This sentiment undergirds the four principles of Stoic thought: Moral action, regulated emotion, regulated materialism, and virtuous behavior.

Stoic philosophers preached the importance of taking moral action, and were the opposite of “armchair philosophers.” Marcus Aurelius (121-180 CE), the 16th Emperor of Rome, focused on real world pragmatism; he championed the idea of taking moral action in his famous journal Mediations, and commandingly wrote, “Waste no more time arguing what a good man should be. Be One.”

The Stoics pursued happiness too, believing it was a virtue. Since destructive emotions

corrupted virtuous thinking, the Stoics looked towards emotional regulation. Therefore, the logic of the Stoics was this: Having complete control over life is impossible, so spending energy on what cannot be controlled is wasteful, and should instead be oriented towards solution building. Epictetus (55–135 CE), an author and philosopher, put forward this view in his book Discourses: “identify and separate matters so that I can say clearly to myself which are externals not under my control, and which have to do with the choices I actually control.”

The Stoics also valued materialism because they believed that material possessions could help lead a virtuous, happy life. However, the Stoics were not ignorant to the fact that most people have an insatiable desire to have more, even if they are already healthy and prosperous. Seneca struggled with this very problem, and in an effort to counteract this, he wore tattered clothing and lived in poverty to prove that happiness could still be fulfilled. Even if someone has nothing, by upholding virtue, they gain everything. Seneca shared this attitude in his Moral Letters, and wrote, “no person has the power to have everything they want, but it is in their power not to want what they don’t have, and to cheerfully put to good use what they do have.”

The highest value of Stoics was upholding virtue, and demonstrating moral excellence

accomplished this. Regulating harmful emotions and desires, and treating others morally and respectfully, usually meant that one was virtuous. Even if a Stoic has been having continuous bad luck, they could rest knowing they upheld virtue. Epictetus, who lived by this very standard, concisely said, “the good or ill of a man lies within his own will.”

The Epicurean Philosophy

Epicurus (341-270 BCE), a Greek sage and philosopher, founded Epicureanism in 307 BCE. Epicurus posits that the highest good was the fulfillment of necessary and natural pleasures, and the avoidance of empty pleasures and illegitimate fears. In the Letter to Menoeceus, Epicurus says that “we must exercise ourselves in the things which bring happiness, since, if that be present, we have everything.”

In contrast to Stoic thought, Epicurus connects a philosophy of science with his philosophy of meaning. Democritus (460-370 BCE), a pre-Socratic philosopher, believed that nature could be simplified down to a particle called the “atom.” Using this framework, Epicurus postulated that the body’s senses were proof of its own existence. In the Letter to Herodotus, Epicurus writes, “our senses bear us witness...that bodies have a real existence; and the evidence of the senses...ought to be the rule of our reasoning about everything which is not directly perceived.”

Epicurus concluded that intangibility, or what the senses failed to detect, was the atom particle constituting all things. To explain the nature of the soul using atomic theory, Epicurus argued that there are unique atoms distributed throughout the body, composing the soul. Since all living beings have souls which act on their body, the soul also has aistheseis (sensations) of pain and pleasure, and pathe (emotion) caused by the pain or pleasure. When a body lacks life, the soul atoms are scattered in disarrangement, and the capacity of sensation and “conscious” life can no longer be sustained. Once the body is inert and lifeless, the soul ceases to exist after the disunity of the soul atoms. This notion of death was likely unpalatable and radical for the Greeks who believed in the afterlife.

Naturally, Epicurus tried to reconcile this disconnect, and reasoned that the worst state of mind was the fear of non dangers. If all living beings must die, then why fear the inevitable and the natural? Therefore, death was a non-danger. Achieving ataraxy (no fear) and evading

physical suffering was Epicurus’ life long goal. Furthermore, Epicurus believed in empty, natural, and necessary pleasures. Natural, necessary pleasures prompted well being, joy, and

overall health. Natural, unnecessary pleasures were material, sensory-pleasing comforts. Empty pleasures were ideas associated with immortality, fame, and fortune; mostly concepts that fulfilled no required need.

Conclusion

What is the significance of the two beliefs?

Stoicism used reason as a means to a virtuous end, and it's practices were made for all walks of life: for the emperor, like Marcus Aurelius, and also for the slave, like Epictetus. It is the qualities of accessibility, moral excellence, and worldly application which made Stoicism

palatable to its followers. On the other hand, Epicureanism used comfort of the body and

reasoning of the mind to achieve a peaceful and pleasurable existence. Through moderate

pleasure, freedom from pain, and a rational outlook on life and death, Epicureanism rivaled the high values of Stoicism.

However, both beliefs lend merit to personal pleasure and self control, with even Stoics like Seneca warmly quoting Epicurus, agreeing that one “must be a slave to philosophy” to truly be free. Epicureanism and Stoicism fulfilled their function as influential value systems for both the ancients and the moderns, teaching millions how to overcome their own nature, find peace of mind through reason, and pursue pleasure and happiness as healthy, virtuous life-long goals.

References

1. “Chapter 13.” On The Happy Life, by Lucius Annaeus Seneca, 58 CE.

2. “Book 10, Section 16.” Meditations, by Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, 161-181 CE.

3. “2.6.25.” Discourses, by Epicetus The Younger, 108 CE.

4. “123.3.” Moral Letters, by Lucius Annaeus Seneca, 63-65 CE.

5. Dusenbury, David Lloyd. “Ward Blanton A MATERIALISM FOR THE MASSES.” TLS. Times

Literary Supplement , no. 5835, 30 Jan. 2015, www.the-tls.co.uk/articles/religion-26/.

6. Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, and Elizabeth Carter. The Works of Epictetus: Consisting of His Discourses in Four Books, the Enchiridion, and Fragments, by Epictetus, Little, Brown, and Co., 1865.

7. Epicurus. “Letter to Menoeceus.” Received by Menoeceus, 341-270 BCE. Translated by Robert Drew Hicks, The University of Adelaide Library, 2004, http://classics.mit.edu/Epicurus/menoec.html.

8. Berryman, Sylvia, “Democritus,” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016

Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =

<https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/democritus/>.

9. Laertius, Diogenes, and C D Yonge. “Book 10, Section 35-83.” Diogenes Laertius : The Letter of Epicurus to Herodotus, by Epicurus, 341AD, www.attalus.org/old/diogenes10b.html

10. Hammerstaedt, Jürgen, Pierre-Marie Morel, Refik Güremen (eds.), 2017. Diogenes of Oinoanda: Epicureanism and Philosophical Debates / Diogène d’Œnoanda: Épicurisme et Controverses, Leuven: Leuven University Press.

11. Cooper, John M., 1999. “Pleasure and Desire in Epicurus,” in J. Cooper, Reason and Emotion, Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 485–514.

12. Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. Letters from a Stoic: The Ancient Classic. 63-65 CE.